Living systems are units of interactions; they exist in an ambience. From a purely biological point of view they cannot be understood independently of that part of the ambience with which they interact: the niche; nor can the niche be defined independently of the living system that specifies it.
I sistemi viventi sono unità di interazione; essi esistono in un ambiente. Da un punto di vista puramente biologico non possono essere compresi indipendentemente da quella parte dell'ambiente con cui interagiscono: la nicchi; né la nicchia può essere definita indipendentemente dai sistemi viventi che la specificano
A living system, due to its circular organization, is an inductive system and functions always in a predictive manner: what happened once will occur again. Its organization, (genetic and otherwise) is conservative and repeats only that which works. For this same reason living systems are historical systems; the relevance of a given conduct or mode of behavior is always determined in the past.
